Developments in the West End Musical Scene

Developments in the West End Musical Scene DISCUSS THE RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE WEST END MUSICAL SCENE; THIS SHOULD INCLUDE AN ANALYSIS OF THE MEGA-MUSICAL MANIA, THE TREND TO CREATE NEW MUSICALS BASED ON EXISTING SONGS (SONG MIGRATION) AND STAGE TRANSFERS OF SUCCESSFUL FILMS. From Sophocles through William Shakespeare to Eminem, writers have sought to use the rhythms of language to accentuate the story they are seeking to share. The pre-Caxton[1] society relied on an oral tradition to deliver stories of fact and fiction. Cultures spanning the entire globe and all ages of civilization have instinctively adopted musical storytelling; it is prominent in various forms even now – be it around a camp fire, at a tribal ceremony, an inner city playground or on a West End stage. In todays world, language and music are at our fingertips. They are both instantaneous. And they can be married in a second. Technically, music is intricate. Most writers will say the same about language. But in an inspired moment they can conjoin and express something wonderful both sonically and linguistically. The act of constructing such a moment can be the end result of many less fruitful moments – but there is always the chance that it could just happen instantaneously. Our logistical minds tell us that it just is not possible; that we would never be able to express ourselves beautifully and eloquently in musical form. And yet the compulsion to try and do so has arrested most people, even if only for a quickly aborted solitary moment. So perhaps here lies the fascination with musicals. They show life as we know it happily residing in an alternate reality – where music and language are easy bed partners and everything goes to extremes. Or does it? The West End is one of Londons most popular tourist attractions. It has built its reputation, in tandem with New Yorks Broadway, as the commercial mecca of musical theatre. Las Vegas has the showgirls but Broadway and the West End share the showtunes. Indeed, while their identities are undeniably distinct, the relationship between them is close; same sex twins rather than identical ones. Each has their own nuances of behaviour – the younger twin Broadway hunts that bit more keenly for the next off-beat musical whirlwind; the older West End plays percentages but plays them with palpable success. The term West End was originally coined as a geographical short cut – a way of describing a part of London synonymous with theatre. Since its inception into London vernacular the phrase West End has mutated to describe something meta-geographical. While once upon a time it merely represented an actual place, now it also describes the gateway to an invented world of glitz, glamour and show. The West End may still be the home of theatre, but the kind of theatre that it houses has become very easily classifiable. The listings do not lie. And neither do they try to. The West End is a haven for small ideas done big; big names, big shows, big spectacles, big budgets, big risks. The social and artistic significance of theatre as an art form has not suffered in the time since the West End theatres were constructed. But the immediacy of rival entertainments, chiefly television and film, has undoubtedly provided so comfortable an alternative for the borderline theatregoing public that its popularity has. Ultimately, the publics relationship with theatre has somewhat inverted itself; once the entertainment of the people, theatre has become high-brow, elitist, exclusive even. Or so we are led to believe. Every year the people entrusted with running the countrys theatres are ensconced in attempts to make theatre more accessible. Nicholas Hytner at the National Theatre has incorporated a sponsorship deal with Travelex with the express purpose of enabling its shows to be available to people for as little as  £10 a ticket. Theatrical output is continuing to diversify in new directions. The National Theatre still produces the time-honoured classics that will appease their traditional supporters. But they also invited outside companies including Theatre de Complicite, Improbable, Shunt and Kneehigh to co-develop their new work. Arts Council funding dictates a certain amount of programming for in-house producing theatres throughout the country. It is impossible to equate the artistic worth of a proposed project while it exists solely as an outline on a piece of paper. But it is easier to quantify the greater social import of the same project. Therefore the involvement in various local outreach initiatives including young peoples theatre and new writing programmes serves duplicate purposes. But in doing so it runs the risk of wrestling a certain amount of control from the artistic directors, or at least diluting the intent of their work. But the West End is not really concerned with any of this. The theatres are privately owned and have little social obligation. West End theatre is a notoriously unpredictable money market. Make a big success of yourself and you can eventually buy it up – which is exactly what Andrew Lloyd Webber and Cameron Mackintosh have ended up doing. Lloyd Webbers Really Useful Group are the proprietors of twelve of the capitals larger theatres. By January 2006 Delfont Mackintosh will control another seven, and will have begun constructing the Sondheim Theatre – the first theatre to be built on Shaftesbury Avenue since 1931. The long-term plan of Delfont Mackintosh is to refurbish and modernise theatreland. But one cannot help but think that their extreme makeover will be restricted to the facilities and layout – and that the entertainment will remain as traditional as ever. The musical-as-we-know-it grew out of the 19th Century tradition of music hall, which itself was the bastard son of drink and rowdiness. After removing the alcohol from drunken singalongs, and relocating from the pub to theatres, the 1860s saw the popularity of the newly-arrived music hall go from good idea to massively popular entertainment. The humbling beginnings of the musical cannot help but reveal the nucleus of the idea; it was born of accident – of people seeking to have pure, unadulterated entertainment. In that respect, it has no one form; no one philosophy; indeed no real sense of philosophy; no real sense of purpose other than fun, fun, fun! As the musical was developing it was the bastion of popular music of the time. Through Gilbert and Sullivan, Irving Berlin, Bertolt Brecht and Kurt Weill and Cole Porter, the men and women behind musical were the most revered song writers at work in the Western world. Ten years into the post-war era there was a marked shift. The musical standards that made dry, wry and witty observations about upper middle class were about to be trumped by rock and roll. And John Osbournes 1956 kitchen-sink-drama Look Back In Anger was going to have repercussions outside the world of the well-made play[2]. The birth of transmittable media was only going to swell the amount of music being produced. In the early days of the wireless radio, families gathered to listen to the songs of Ivor Novello or Noel Coward. By the mid-1960s many families had television sets in their front rooms; radio broadcasts were a competitive business; and air transport links had made the world traversable for all those who could afford it. Music was a commodity that could be sent from one side of the world to the other. And in the slipstream of the music were the musicians themselves. Through television and radio, songwriters and musicians had an identity. They became icons – the most celebrated people on the planet. And their music was nowhere near the West End stage. For the first time since their inception musicals were not using the popular music of the time. Rocknroll was being held in musical purgatory by traditionalists unhappy at its low-brow ideals. While cinema was running as fast and far as it could with the concept of the film musical, the stage was seeking to deliver variations on earlier themes. Elvis Presley made numerous musical films – as did The Beatles. In the 1960s the West End was awash with Broadway imports – the influence of Leonard Bernstein, Rodgers and Hammerstein, Lerner and Loewe and other transatlantic success stories was diluting the integrity of the West End as the older brother of the musical. But the psychedelic overtones of that time were to create musical anomalies; while some composers flirted with the conce pt of rock, others werent afraid to dive headlong into its bottomless pit. After its anti-Vietnam stance and inclusion of group nudity caused outrage on Broadway, Hair opened in the West End in 1968. From being the chosen playground of mild-mannered conservatives, the musical was being politicised – and modernised. Within five years, the Age of Aquarius[3] had been further capitalized upon by Godspell, Oh Calcutta and even Jesus Christ Superstar – which proved to be the foundation on which the new dawn of the musical would be built. Todays twin Godfathers of musical composition for Broadway and the West End carry the bright torch of yesteryear; Stephen Sondheim represents his forefathers fascination with the off-beat, with Andrew Lloyd Webber never straying from the musically conservative beat. There are various factors that dictate the recent successes and failures in West End theatre. But the starting point for every West End production is money – a fact beautifully demonstrated by the plot of one of the West Ends most popular current productions The Producers. Essentially, the capitalist dawn that swallowed up free love has made currency the new leading man in musical theatre. Producers need big ideas and big songs to legislate for big budgets. So instead of trying to predict what people may like and creating a musical story around it, the West End decided to reduce the risk and simply take the music that people already like and create a story around that. In some ways the origin of song migration is old revue style shows – popular hits belted out with no real desire to create an accompanying piece of drama or comedy. Coupled with the screen to stage success of musical films like The Lion King, a producer was now able to weigh up potential West End shows safe in the knowledge that a stable of worldwide smash hits could enable a musical to run for years, even with a bad review. Suddenly the sheer bankability of Lloyd Webber was looking like an outlandish risk alongside the music of Abba[4], Queen[5] or even (the critically lauded but never supergroup status) of Madness[6]. Negotiations are in process for the trend to continue, with Bob Marley, The Beatles and Elton John just some of the musical legends in line to have their songs shoe-horned into some money-spinning stage extravaganza that makes almost no sense at all. Not that the public really care. They want to go and sing-a-long like the pub dwellers of the 1840s that unknowi ngly helped begin the process of musical theatre. And who shall we choose to lead the sing-song? Well, preferably someone famous off the telly, of course. The West End is a remarkably lucrative place. For his unscheduled stint in the opening cast run of The Producers at the end of 2004, Nathan Lane was being paid  £42,000 a week for the lead role as Max Bialystock. It is a clear indication of the simple transaction between moneymen and talent; the star name guarantees the box office receipts. The West End has been flooded with stars – some of whom have no musical pedigree – because celebrity is deemed to have finally overridden talent. The good, bad and ugly (in no particular order) of recent years include David Hasselhoff[7], Martine McCutcheon[8] and Denise Van Outen[9]. And if you dont want to spend money on star names, then youd better be sure to have some seriously impressive stage gimmicks; Miss Saigon famously had a helicopter, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang got in to hot water when the eponymous flying car failed to take off in previews, and Phantom of the Opera has a plunging chandelier moment that will wake up anyone snoozing in the stalls. So with standard tickets averaging out at around  £40, the theatregoer demands a truly amazing experience. But amazing and original are poles apart – and thats why when the formula is right, all you need to do is repeat it. There are exceptions. The Bombitty of Errors was a rap interpretation of Shakespeares Comedy of Errors, and was a small but perfectly-formed global success. Stomp became a phenomenon through gradual word of mouth and because it is a different kind of spectacle. Jerry Springer: The Opera began life as an idea at a scratch night at the Battersea Arts Centre and grabbed the attention of every newspaper and fundamentalist Christian in the Western World. But such shows grow from humble beginnings and are swept away on public curiosity. As in any art form, there are people willing to take risks because they believe their work has a market. Bombay Dreams and The Far Pavilions identify a recently developed appreciation of Asian music and culture. The off-Broadway hit Batboy continues in the tradition of earlier pacesetters The Rocky Horror Picture Show and Hedwig and the Angry Inch for kitsch rock operas. But some of these are accidental intruders in the world of the West End. They werent sure if they were really invited but came anyway. One group that certainly were invited are blockbuster films; whether they have songs in them or not. Seemingly the films dont even have to have been that successful. The Witches of Eastwick had a successful run in the West End. But more than likely, the film will have a readymade audience. The Full Monty was relocated to middle America from Sheffield to make it a Broadway success. Billy Elliott is well into previews, but the advance word is that it will be a significant hit. Or better still, just take a film with songs already in them – you dont stand to make as much money, but the guarantee of an audience is that much stronger. Mary Poppins has been well-received by most, and Chitty Chitty Bang Bang is in its third year. There are currently 36 theatres in the West End of Londons theatreland[10]. As of Monday 2 May 2005, 27 are currently housing a production. 17 of those are musicals. This ratio is fairly consistent – and shows no signs of relenting. Essentially a hit West End musical needs a hook; star name, hit songs, hit movie, famous composer, popular revival. Something that can be reduced to a two-word phrase. If you havent got any of those, then heaven help you. Because the West End public certainly wont. BIBLIOGRAPHY In-yer-face Theatre: British Drama TodayAleks Sierz Faber Faber2001 Scene Unseen: Londons West End TheatresBarson, Kendall, Longman, SmithEnglish Heritage Publications 2003 Brewers Theatre: Phrase Fable DictionaryCassell Market House Books1994 MusicalsKurt Ganzl Carlton Books2004 Time Out (London) Issue No. 1810 April 27-May 4 2005 Musicals 101.com 1 Footnotes [1] William Caxton, inventor of the printing press (1474), which enabled literature to be mass-produced and readily available to the public. [2] A term coined by Terrence Rattigan for the four-act structure of a play that had been the norm for successful playwrights in the first half of the Twentieth Century. [3] A term synonymous with late 60s flower power and liberal ideologies – derived from a song from the musical Hair. [4] Mamma Mia. [5] We Will Rock You. [6] Our House. [7] Chicago, Adelphi Theatre, 2004 [8] My Fair Lady, Theatre Royal Drury Lane, 2001 [9] Chicago, Adelphi, 2001, Tell Me On A Sunday, Gielgud, 2003 [10] They are the Adelphi, Albery, Aldwych, Apollo, Arts, Cambridge, Comedy, Criterion, Dominion, Theatre Royal Drury Lane, Duchess, Duke of Yorks, Fortune, Garrick, Gielgud, Haymarket, Her Majestys, London Palladium, Lyceum, Lyric, New Ambassadors, New London, Palace, Phoenix, Piccadilly, Playhouse, Prince Edward, Prince of Wales, Queens, Savoy, Shaftesbury, St Martins, Strand, Trafalgar Studios, Vaudeville, Wyndhams. Other central theatres not classified as West End include the Donmar Warehouse, National Theatre, Old Vic, Victoria Palace, Apollo Victoria, Lilian Baylis Saddlers Wells, Peacock, Almeida and the Royal Court.

The Rational Choice Approach

Whilst people all around the world debate over which political system is the most effective, social scientists are still in debate over which is the best way to analyse politics. Without the correct analysis of political objects how is one supposed to decide which political system or party is the most effective? It is for this reason that the way in which we analyse political objects is so important. There are many different ways to go about analysing politics. One main distinction to be noted is how in America the subject is called political science, whereas many European universities just call it politics.European scholars would suggest that the name political science is flawed in the sense that you cannot conduct certain political experiments. Rational choice theorists would suggest otherwise as I will explain later on in the essay. In a lecture delivered by Professor Mark Franklin at the European University Institute, he stated; â€Å"We cannot take a random sample of people and give them a new political system to see what happens† (Franklin, 2006). Debates such as these go far further than just cross-national. In this essay I intend to give a brief background to the various approaches to studying politics.I will then go on to outline the strengths and weaknesses of the rational choice approach to understanding the political, paying close attention to the definition of self-interest, using various scholars work to form a critique of the rational choice theory. The studying of politics can be dated back to the ‘Platonic era’ of ancient Greece, as early as 420 B. C. However, the departments of politics came much later. Within these departments one of the earliest forms of analysing politics was through the method of institutionalism. This involved the studying of institutions.Institutionalists looked at how institutions were formed, what they did and how they were structured. Rather than looking at philosophical questions, institutionalist s concentrated on normative questions. Institutionalism was criticised for its lack of rigour as it was mainly a descriptive process. Others called it elitist and described it as â€Å"clever people telling others about their own system† (Parvin, 2013). The 1930s saw the American way of thinking revised as a result of the increasing numbers of European scholars entering America.As a result of this, and with the growing criticisms of the conventional approach, analysis took a behavioural standpoint. At the same time of behaviouralism, rational choice theorists were in writing. However, it only flourished in the 1980s. Rational choice theory involves more questioning of peoples decisions and political objectives and was a lot less descriptive. Rational choice theory, first used in the field of economics, suggests individuals are rational and therefore act in their own self-interest. They do this by weighing up the costs and benefits of a situation.It also assumes individuals ar e rational meaning they do not act outside the norm. Another assumption is that individuals make their decisions whilst taking into account what other individuals do, or what they believe the other individuals will do. The first weakness of the rational choice theory I wish to analyse is the assumption that all individuals are self-interested. To tackle this it is important to define being self-interested. It is often defined as one gaining pleasure from an act. However, is an act still self-interested if the person gains pleasure from helping others?If your answer is no, then what if an act pleasures one’s self whilst helping others, but also putting others at a disadvantage. Is this now self-interested again? For example, when a pressure group member of ‘fathers 4 justice’ climbs a building to encourage politicians to allow him to see his child he would be seen as self-interested. On the other hand, he is doing it in order to care for his child and give him the correct up-bringing he needs. In this instance he may not be considered self-interested. On a further note, by climbing up said building police and other services would be called out to resolve the situation.This could lead to a delayed call-out for police to attend another crime scene, putting others at a disadvantage. Does this now make the act self-interested again? From this series example it is evident that there are usually several parties affected by a particular political movement or decision. It is also evident that upon making political decisions people often have multiple incentives which may involve benefiting ones self and benefiting others, making it extremely difficult to give determine if an act is self-interested or not.Furthermore, assuming it was possible to narrow down an act to being self-interested or not, it is  impossible to say every single person is self-interested. This is outlined by the ‘black swan theory’. This theory suggests that no ma tter how many white swans you see, you can never rule out the possibility of there being a black swan. One strength of the rational choice theory is that it offers an explanation as to why there has been a a dramatic decrease in political participation since the middle of the 20th century, as outlined in Colin Hay’s book ‘Why we hate politics’. For example, between 1950 and 2001 electoral turnout in the UK has decreased by 24.2% (Hay, 2008: 49).Decreases in electoral turnout doesn’t stop at the UK, since the middle of the 20th century lots of countries including of the OECD countries, bar two. This decrease in political participation may be as a result of voters weighing up the costs and benefits of voting and then coming to the conclusion the costs outweigh the benefits. People feel as if their vote would count for nothing and that one vote is highly unlikely to change who forms the government. Hay goes on to deliver this point of view in the equation of [Uchosen – Uother] p > Cvoting.In this equation [Uchosen – Uother] p represents the utility the voter receives if the party they vote for goes into power minus the utility received if the other party goes into power. Cvoting represents the cost of voting and the cost is always greater than the benefits to a rational individual (Hay, 2008: 50). This is further examined by Mancur Oslon in his book ‘The logic of Collective Action’. Oslon highlights how individuals do not participate, letting others put in the work and then reaping the rewards of having a strong government (Oslon, 1971).This has also been linked to the power of the minority and how they can choose to opt out of a trade union but still get the benefits, for example; an increasing wage rate. Both theories presented are easy to accept as they suggest strong explanations as to why there has been a decrease in participation. However, on a closer examination to the voting system, it may appear that there are more benefits to be earned from voting. Many people experience a feeling of pleasure from participating as they feel as if they have done a good deed.Which arguably, they have. Moreover, some people may experience a sense of pride as a result of doing something to help their country. Another point to take into account when weighing up the benefits of voting is that some people may genuinely enjoy the process. On the contrary, when weighing the costs it must be noted that the effort and inconvenience of voting isn’t the only cost in certain cases. Some individuals choose not to vote as they believe by voting they are accepting a certain party’s policies, whereas some people do not agree with any party.Others are anarchists who do not believe governments should exist. In this instance the cost would be far greater, providing further support for the rational choice theory. The rational choice theory has also allowed us to predict behaviour through its vigorous m ethodology. In the introduction I briefly mentioned the various views on whether or not politics can be viewed as a science. Although we may not be able to conduct experiments which involve observing people in different political systems, we can put them in situations to observe their decision making and relate it to the political.One experiment involving offering two bank robbers the opportunity to either stay quiet or hand over their accomplice saw individuals being rational. The best outcome was if they both stayed quiet and saw them both have reduced sentences, whilst if one stays quiet and the other hands the accomplice over, the accomplice will be sentenced with the one who handed him over going free. However, if they both handed each other over they would both have an increased sentence. This is part of game theory and is known as the prisoner’s dilemma. Being rational, the prisoners near enough always handed over their partner.Rational choice theorists would suggest t his can be transferred to the political arena by explaining that they would act with this level of self-interest in all situations, including within the political arena. Nonetheless, it is important to note that choosing between imprisonment and who governs are two completely different scenarios. To say that individuals would act the same in both situations with little evidence to show this is somewhat illogical. For example when confronted by a woman asking you for your wallet you may decide to refuse, but when she is holding a gun to your head your answer may change.The game show whereby similar outcomes are offered to two people but instead of prison sentences, the outcome is how much money they receive is evidence of how the answer depends on what is at stake. Within this show there were always different combinations of answers with both self-interested people and people willing to share. From this essay it is clear that there are many weaknesses. However, it should not go un-no ticed that one of the most influential factors that caused the increasing use of the rational choice approach was its vigour. Whilst other approaches offer mere descriptions, rational choice theory goes into deep questioning.Furthermore, the methodology is greater than any other with the use of experiments to allow for more precise, qualitative data to be recorded. On the other hand it could be argued that the use of rational choice approach ignores the study of institutions by focusing solely on the individual. All theories possess strengths and weaknesses. It is also apparent that different approaches may offer more concise measurements in different areas so it is important not to rely on one particular approach, but instead use a variety to allow for a more reliable analysis.Despite the outlined weaknesses, it has had much success in the field of economics. Some may argue that this means we should stick with it as a way of analysing politics. However, I fear that it is not plausi ble to simply transfer a theory from one subject to another, despite both being social sciences. This is due to the nature of politics being focused on equal distribution and fairness (in the vast majority of countries due to the democratic values resulting in a government for all the people).If people were as self-interested as the rational choice approach suggests then there would be a lot more extreme right-wing and left-wing parties present where the rich want to keep all of their money and the poor want as many benefits as possible. Instead we find a middle ground such as the liberal democrats in England. For this reason, it appears that the methodology does not compliment the ontology as no matter what experiments are carried out, none can be related to the political, as the European University Institute outlined. The Rational Choice Approach Whilst people all around the world debate over which political system is the most effective, social scientists are still in debate over which is the best way to analyse politics. Without the correct analysis of political objects how is one supposed to decide which political system or party is the most effective? It is for this reason that the way in which we analyse political objects is so important. There are many different ways to go about analysing politics. One main distinction to be noted is how in America the subject is called political science, whereas many European universities just call it politics.European scholars would suggest that the name political science is flawed in the sense that you cannot conduct certain political experiments. Rational choice theorists would suggest otherwise as I will explain later on in the essay. In a lecture delivered by Professor Mark Franklin at the European University Institute, he stated; â€Å"We cannot take a random sample of people and give them a new political system to see what happens† (Franklin, 2006). Debates such as these go far further than just cross-national. In this essay I intend to give a brief background to the various approaches to studying politics.I will then go on to outline the strengths and weaknesses of the rational choice approach to understanding the political, paying close attention to the definition of self-interest, using various scholars work to form a critique of the rational choice theory. The studying of politics can be dated back to the ‘Platonic era’ of ancient Greece, as early as 420 B. C. However, the departments of politics came much later. Within these departments one of the earliest forms of analysing politics was through the method of institutionalism. This involved the studying of institutions.Institutionalists looked at how institutions were formed, what they did and how they were structured. Rather than looking at philosophical questions, institutionalist s concentrated on normative questions. Institutionalism was criticised for its lack of rigour as it was mainly a descriptive process. Others called it elitist and described it as â€Å"clever people telling others about their own system† (Parvin, 2013). The 1930s saw the American way of thinking revised as a result of the increasing numbers of European scholars entering America.As a result of this, and with the growing criticisms of the conventional approach, analysis took a behavioural standpoint. At the same time of behaviouralism, rational choice theorists were in writing. However, it only flourished in the 1980s. Rational choice theory involves more questioning of peoples decisions and political objectives and was a lot less descriptive. Rational choice theory, first used in the field of economics, suggests individuals are rational and therefore act in their own self-interest. They do this by weighing up the costs and benefits of a situation.It also assumes individuals ar e rational meaning they do not act outside the norm. Another assumption is that individuals make their decisions whilst taking into account what other individuals do, or what they believe the other individuals will do. The first weakness of the rational choice theory I wish to analyse is the assumption that all individuals are self-interested. To tackle this it is important to define being self-interested. It is often defined as one gaining pleasure from an act. However, is an act still self-interested if the person gains pleasure from helping others?If your answer is no, then what if an act pleasures one’s self whilst helping others, but also putting others at a disadvantage. Is this now self-interested again? For example, when a pressure group member of ‘fathers 4 justice’ climbs a building to encourage politicians to allow him to see his child he would be seen as self-interested. On the other hand, he is doing it in order to care for his child and give him the correct up-bringing he needs. In this instance he may not be considered self-interested. On a further note, by climbing up said building police and other services would be called out to resolve the situation.This could lead to a delayed call-out for police to attend another crime scene, putting others at a disadvantage. Does this now make the act self-interested again? From this series example it is evident that there are usually several parties affected by a particular political movement or decision. It is also evident that upon making political decisions people often have multiple incentives which may involve benefiting ones self and benefiting others, making it extremely difficult to give determine if an act is self-interested or not.Furthermore, assuming it was possible to narrow down an act to being self-interested or not, it is  impossible to say every single person is self-interested. This is outlined by the ‘black swan theory’. This theory suggests that no ma tter how many white swans you see, you can never rule out the possibility of there being a black swan. One strength of the rational choice theory is that it offers an explanation as to why there has been a a dramatic decrease in political participation since the middle of the 20th century, as outlined in Colin Hay’s book ‘Why we hate politics’.For example, between 1950 and 2001 electoral turnout in the UK has decreased by 24.2% (Hay, 2008: 49). Decreases in electoral turnout doesn’t stop at the UK, since the middle of the 20th century lots of countries including of the OECD countries, bar two. This decrease in political participation may be as a result of voters weighing up the costs and benefits of voting and then coming to the conclusion the costs outweigh the benefits. People feel as if their vote would count for nothing and that one vote is highly unlikely to change who forms the government. Hay goes on to deliver this point of view in the equation of [Uchosen – Uother] p > Cvoting.In this equation [Uchosen – Uother] p represents the utility the voter receives if the party they vote for goes into power minus the utility received if the other party goes into power. Cvoting represents the cost of voting and the cost is always greater than the benefits to a rational individual (Hay, 2008: 50). This is further examined by Mancur Oslon in his book ‘The logic of Collective Action’. Oslon highlights how individuals do not participate, letting others put in the work and then reaping the rewards of having a strong government (Oslon, 1971).This has also been linked to the power of the minority and how they can choose to opt out of a trade union but still get the benefits, for example; an increasing wage rate. Both theories presented are easy to accept as they suggest strong explanations as to why there has been a decrease in participation. However, on a closer examination to the voting system, it may appear that there are more benefits to be earned from voting. Many people experience a feeling of pleasure from participating as they feel as if they have done a good deed.Which arguably, they have. Moreover, some people may experience a sense of pride as a result of doing something to help their country. Another point to take into account when weighing up the benefits of voting is that some people may genuinely enjoy the process. On the contrary, when weighing the costs it must be noted that the effort and inconvenience of voting isn’t the only cost in certain cases. Some individuals choose not to vote as they believe by voting they are accepting a certain party’s policies, whereas some people do not agree with any party.Others are anarchists who do not believe governments should exist. In this instance the cost would be far greater, providing further support for the rational choice theory. The rational choice theory has also allowed us to predict behaviour through its vigorous m ethodology. In the introduction I briefly mentioned the various views on whether or not politics can be viewed as a science. Although we may not be able to conduct experiments which involve observing people in different political systems, we can put them in situations to observe their decision making and relate it to the political.One experiment involving offering two bank robbers the opportunity to either stay quiet or hand over their accomplice saw individuals being rational. The best outcome was if they both stayed quiet and saw them both have reduced sentences, whilst if one stays quiet and the other hands the accomplice over, the accomplice will be sentenced with the one who handed him over going free. However, if they both handed each other over they would both have an increased sentence. This is part of game theory and is known as the prisoner’s dilemma. Being rational, the prisoners near enough always handed over their partner.Rational choice theorists would suggest t his can be transferred to the political arena by explaining that they would act with this level of self-interest in all situations, including within the political arena. Nonetheless, it is important to note that choosing between imprisonment and who governs are two completely different scenarios. To say that individuals would act the same in both situations with little evidence to show this is somewhat illogical. For example when confronted by a woman asking you for your wallet you may decide to refuse, but when she is holding a gun to your head your answer may change.The game show whereby similar outcomes are offered to two people but instead of prison sentences, the outcome is how much money they receive is evidence of how the answer depends on what is at stake. Within this show there were always different combinations of answers with both self-interested people and people willing to share. From this essay it is clear that there are many weaknesses. However, it should not go un-no ticed that one of the most influential factors that caused the increasing use of the rational choice approach was its vigour. Whilst other approaches offer mere descriptions, rational choice theory goes into deep questioning.Furthermore, the methodology is greater than any other with the use of experiments to allow for more precise, qualitative data to be recorded. On the other hand it could be argued that the use of rational choice approach ignores the study of institutions by focusing solely on the individual. All theories possess strengths and weaknesses. It is also apparent that different approaches may offer more concise measurements in different areas so it is important not to rely on one particular approach, but instead use a variety to allow for a more reliable analysis.Despite the outlined weaknesses, it has had much success in the field of economics. Some may argue that this means we should stick with it as a way of analysing politics. However, I fear that it is not plausi ble to simply transfer a theory from one subject to another, despite both being social sciences. This is due to the nature of politics being focused on equal distribution and fairness (in the vast majority of countries due to the democratic values resulting in a government for all the people).If people were as self-interested as the rational choice approach suggests then there would be a lot more extreme right-wing and left-wing parties present where the rich want to keep all of their money and the poor want as many benefits as possible. Instead we find a middle ground such as the liberal democrats in England. For this reason, it appears that the methodology does not compliment the ontology as no matter what experiments are carried out, none can be related to the political, as the European University Institute outlined.

Is Cloning Not Ethical - 1425 Words

All organisms on this planet evolved from a single cell. That single cell eventually developed into complex organisms with a billion cells. Insects, birds, apes, and the person that sits next to you on the bus every morning, are all very closely related†¦ to you, but what makes a human distinctive from all the other organisms on this planet? Humans are unique in their own way because they have evolved to perform extraordinary and assorted tasks. Humans are meant to have flaws, and they are meant to be diverse, but a relatively new advancement contradicts the definition of being human. For many years the world has had to deal with a controversial topic of cloning. Cloning is an exact, precise copy of an organism (â€Å"Cloning†). Even though cloning provides many benefits, human cloning is not ethical because it will cost a tremendous amount of money and time. Cloning will also destroy evolution, and finally each and every human, even a clone, deserves a sense of individua lity. As mentioned earlier, cloning is the copying of an organism that results in identical offspring (â€Å"Cloning†). Scientists have tried cloning many times on frogs and other organisms (â€Å"Cloning†), but when the first mammal to be cloned was successful in 1997, scientists jumped into pools of thoughts to clone humans. The first mammal to be cloned was a sheep named Dolly. The process of cloning Dolly was called Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer. The nucleus of a somatic stem cell is taken out of the eggs of theShow MoreRelatedThe Ethical Implications Of Cloning1265 Words   |  6 PagesCloning is the process of making copies of individuals that occur in nature such as bacteria, insects, plants, invertebrates or vertebrates. The copy is called clones. Clones are genetically identical to their original parent. Development of cloned animals, which have been genetically engineered to produce valuable proteins in their milk. These have uses in medicine, cloning can also save animals from extinction. Cloning would open doors to even more powerful technologies of human genetic informationRead MoreThe Ethical Implications Of Cloning997 Words   |  4 Pages Artificial Cloning Cloning is a number of different processes that can be used to produce genetically identical copies of a biological entity; in short it is an identical duplicate of something living. Cloning does occur naturally by single celled organism through asexual reproduction, they make a new individual from themselves not having to use a partner, so if cloning is already done by these single celled organisms; why is artificial cloning portrayed so badly in movies and media? MostRead More Cloning: Is It Ethical? Essay1574 Words   |  7 PagesCloning: Is It Ethical? Science today is developing at warp speed. We have the capability to do many things, which include the cloning of actual humans! First you may ask what a clone is? A clone is a group of cells or organisms, which are genetically identical, and have all been produced from the same original cell. There are three main types of cloning, two of which aim to produce live cloned offspring and one, which simply aims to produce stem cells and then human organs. These three are:Read MoreThe Ethical Implications Of Cloning Essay1989 Words   |  8 Pagesfragments of DNA or genetic information. The developments of cloning over time has opened up many doors for scientists. This has lead to animals such as sheep and primates become fully developed, or have come close to fully developing into clones. Primates are essentially humans closest genetic relative and so the cloning of the monkey reinforced the possibility of the cloning of humans. Although there are many other ways that cloning can be us eful in terms of being a therapeutic resource for humansRead MoreIs Cloning Ethical Or Moral?1617 Words   |  7 PagesCloning is one of the most controversial topics in all of science in the current day. Technology has come miles from where it has been, and we still have yet to perfect how it is used. When I chose this topic as one of the two I had to pick from the list, I didn’t really know how cloning worked or how I actually felt about the on-going conversation of whether or not cloning is ethical or moral, much less legal. What I have come to conclude after the various articles I have read, and the differentRead MoreIs Human Cloning Ethical or Not?551 Words   |  2 Pagesanother person. What is Cloning? Although there have been no confirmed cases of cloned human beings, cloning in theory allows scientists to create a genetic copy of another human individual. The clone would not be an exact physical copy and he/she would have his/her own individual personality and unique fingers prints and toe prints in spite of sharing DNA with the person from whom he/she was cloned. The issue of human cloning can be seen as either ethical or un-ethical, depending on who is beingRead MoreHuman Cloning And Its Ethical Issues1194 Words   |  5 PagesThere have been many arguments in the world about human cloning and its ethical issues. In an issue there will always be pros and cons, but the question is, is this experiment right for humanity? This paper will give in detail about what is cloning, human cloning and how it is done. It will provide my point of view in this topic and two other different arguments from both sides of the issue and finally determine which ones are great arguments. I present my argument with we all are humans andRead MoreThe Ethical Implications Of Human Cloning1305 Words   |  6 Pagesbe duplicated. Cloning sheep and other nonhuman animals seemed more ethically benign to some than potentially cloning people. In response to such concerns in the United States, President Clinton signed a five-year moratorium on federal funding for human cloning the same year of Dolly s arrival [source: Lamb]. Human cloning has become one of the most debated topics among people in the world regarding the ethical implications. In past polls by TIME magazine (The Ethics of Cloning, 1998), it was shownRead MoreCloning Ethical And Moral Dilemma3147 Words   |  13 Pages Cloning an Ethical and Moral Dilemma Scott Blakley Jr. YC English 101, Period 3 Dr. Palm 1 December 2014 Cloning an Ethical and Moral Dilemma Science has been plagued with the limits of ethics and morals of the people that fail to see the bigger picture that research can help to bring great things to the world. Cloning is one of the major fields that are affected by closed minded beliefs and laws that prohibit research. Should the search for finding medicine that could save lives andRead MoreWhat Are the Ethical Issues of Human Cloning1463 Words   |  6 Pagesregarding the issue of human cloning in countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia which have made attempts or have done research in reproductive cloning. Countries like Australia have prohibited human cloning in 2006. (NHMRC, 2007) Advocates who involve congress members, editorial writers, fertility specialists...and so on gave benefits of human cloning, yet not enough to justify the moral and ethical issues underlying the controversy. Human cloning refers to the creation of

Restoring the American Chestnut Tree

Erik Erikson s Theory Of Development - 1245 Words

Susan is a sixty-seven year old woman. She worked in human resources for a significant portion of her life, however, in her later middle adult life decided to return to school to study to be a registered nurse (RN). This was tough for Susan considering she was a mother of five—her eldest being in her late twenties and her youngest in elementary school. When asked to reminisce over her life, Susan had numerous interesting stories from her life and shared much wisdom. If one analyzes Susan’s lifespan interview using Erikson’s theory, they will realize that she has always been conquering developmental conflict at each life stage. Before analyzing Susan’s life, when one looks closely at Erik Erikson’s theory, there are eight stages of†¦show more content†¦In this developmental stage adults face generativity versus stagnation. In the last developmental stage, late adulthood, people encounter an integrity versus despair crisis (Coon Mitterer, 20 15, p. 123-126). In addition, each stage has a virtue that is accomplished after the crisis has been resolved. This was just an overview to Erikson’s developmental theory, however, it greatly assists the analyzation of Susan’s life. To begin, this paper will not examine at the trust versus mistrust stage considering Susan cannot recollect being an infant. Therefore, beginning at the early childhood stage, Susan felt extremely self-sufficient compared to her younger siblings; she remembers having bathroom accidents and incidents of bed-wetting. Nevertheless, she remembers seeking her mother out and asking for assistance in the cleanup. Therefore, Susan clearly achieved autonomy over shame and doubt. The virtue earned here was will—she was willing to seek support and admit wrongdoing. The subsequent stage is the middle childhood stage; this age is characterized by children being playful and commencement school. At this period, the crisis is initiative versus guilt . Susan showed initiative and made exceptional grades in preschool and elementary school and as stated previously she showed early signs of mastering appropriate times to be guilty. She was ambitious and determined to do outstanding in school and was remorseful when she did

American and Mexican Culture Free Essays

Introduction to Ovulation * Many women learn how to calculate their ovulation when they first talk to a doctor about birth control. But some may still question whether they can get pregnant if they aren’t ovulating. The answer to that question is not as straightforward as it seems. We will write a custom essay sample on American and Mexican Culture or any similar topic only for you Order Now One would think that if a woman isn’t ovulating, she can’t get pregnant. This is only partially true. Generally, a woman isn’t fertile if she isn’t ovulating. If she isn’t ovulating, she has no egg present to be fertilized outside the ovulation period. The confusion comes when trying to decipher when the ovulation period really is. Sometimes a woman can ovulate beyond what she considers her normal ovulating period, and she can become pregnant outside of her calculated fertility window. How to Calculate Ovulation * A woman generally ovulates between 11 and 21 days after her last menstrual cycle. Women with a 28-day cycle generally, on average, ovulate on day 14. But every woman is different and other factors can come into play to alter when and whether she ovulates. For some women, calculating ovulating periods can be tricky. Using methods such as evaluating cervical mucus, reading basal body temperature and keeping track of menstrual cycles can help with the calculations. A woman should get to know her body; this will be the most telling sign in knowing when ovulation occurs. If in doubt, an ovulation kit can help clarify when ovulation occurs. Ovulation Misconceptions * Many misconceptions surround ovulation. First, not all women ovulate on day 14 of their cycle. Another myth is that keeping up with ovulation is an effective birth control method. Although an egg can live for only 24 hours, sperm can live inside a woman for five to seven days. So even if a woman thinks it is safe to have unprotected sex a couple of days before she ovulates, the sperm can still fertilize the egg days after intercourse. For women who have irregular periods, it is not accurate to count from the last day of the menstrual cycle to determine the ovulating time frame. Can a Woman Get Pregnant If She Is Not Ovulating? * Technically, a woman cannot get pregnant if she isn’t ovulating. Determining whether and when a woman is ovulating can be miscalculated, however. A woman can actually get pregnant when she believes that she is safe because she thinks she isn’t ovulating. Sperm can live long enough to fertilize the egg days after intercourse. How to cite American and Mexican Culture, Essay examples

Company and Commercial Law

Question: Write an essay on the "Company and Commercial Law". Answer: Introduction The company and other organizations must adhere to the commercial law as stipulated or else face various fines and other consequences. The rights of various individuals who take part in several businesses are protected by the law. It ensures that the persons are not mistreated while they engage in numerous businesses. The trading of the goods and services should be done in an appropriate way to ensure that every person is satisfied with the trade. The conduct of persons taking part in the business is also monitored by the Commercial Law. It is a mandate that the people follow the rules to ensure there are no complications. The smooth running of the enterprises is vital and for the growth of the economy of a state. The businesspersons are expected to act accordingly and report any misconduct associated with businesses taking place. The court of law ensures that one gets the justice after presenting the matter before the judges and with substantial evidence. The discussion outlines the business structures, shareholder rights and the corporations act. Business Structure What type of legal business structure is Denise and Freda currently operating? Provides reasons Denise and Freda are operating a partnership business structure that is owned by two or more people. They have been in the business for over five years and have shared the earned profits equally. It has some similarity with the sole proprietorship that is operated by an individual and the persons do not need to file any documents or pay any fees for it to take place. Each individual is expected to report their share of the profits of the enterprise on their personal taxes as the income. Moreover, all the persons are liable for the debts, claims and any liabilities that the organization has to meet (Sheedy, 2011). The type of structure is ideal for the small businesses because the issues that regard the personal liability are not a primary concern. Denise and Freda have been operating the caf and serving the customers together for a long period. However, they have been in the dilemma of lacking enough capital to keep the caf running and joining another partner in their business. The i ndividuals need more funds so as to rectify the slippery floors that have not been friendly to the customers as they have been falling off and breaking their legs. The injuries have also affected the business as many people will try to avoid the caf due to its condition. It is the role of Denise and Freda to manage the caf as they own it and share the costs (Shade Epstein, 2003). Whether their current business structure is the most suitable for the caf or whether they should consider another form of business structure, and, if so, which one? On the other hand, the current business structure is the most suitable for the caf as it is a small business. It enables easy management as only the two individuals are involved in the process of managing all the activities taking place. They should not change the structure at the moment and should maintain it and ensure that it grows rapidly. They should be keen in all the processes and minimizes the losses for them to earn more profits. In addition to that, the caf should be renovated and designed well so as to attract more customers. The additional funds they require they should obtain a loan from a local bank to help them fix the issues they need (Gitman McDaniel, 2008). The loan will be helpful to enable keep the caf running and also improving their services. The other important thing, is that they should lay down the strategies that they need to follow. Moreover, the goals and objectives of the caf should also be clear and they should work hard to ensure they achieve them. The y should also advertise their caf services on various platforms to create awareness to the public. It will ensure that they gain more customers and that will increase their sales and the profits. The loan will be repaid in a short span if they take the matter seriously and be committed to their job. The clients should also be served with respect and dignity to ensure that they opt for the caf every time. Several offers should be given out from time to time as a sign of giving thanks to the customers for their support (Messenger et al, 2008). Liability of Directors Discuss any liability of the directors of TBC Ltd in relation to these events. The board of The Best Coffee Ltd is comprised of four directors and one of them is a non-executive director. The organization is large and has been listed on the Australian Stock Exchange due to its good progress. However, it has engaged in various investments that have been losing large sums of money and have not been reported and the financial statements have been prepared. The directors have various responsibilities that they should exercise from time to time for the benefit of the company. First of all, they are supposed to act in accordance with the powers that are stipulated in the organizations constitution. They have to utilize the powers for the purposes that they were conferred and not any other. Some of the directors have a tendency of misusing the powers and using them to use the company resources for their benefit. They should be used to help the company grow rapidly and also meet its goals and objectives. The organization should be organized to the level best and the di rector should ensure that all the activities are running smoothly as expected (Anderson, 2008). Secondly, one should promote and ensure the success of the organization for the benefit of all its members. The rapid growth of the company is important to increase its profits and ensure that all the involved highly benefit from it every time. They should ensure that the productivity of the company is maintained at all costs. The workers should be motivated to work and a friendly environment provided to enable them work diligently. The motivation is essential in any institution to give the employees the morale to improve their output. Thirdly, it is upon them to exercise their independent judgment on various issues affecting the company. They should evaluate and make several comparisons so as to make a critical decision that will be beneficial to the enterprise. All the activities should be monitored and the places that need change to increase productivity should be given the priority. Fourthly, the individuals should employ reasonable care, skill and diligence as they perform their day to day tasks. The powers they have they should utilize them in the correct manner and also allocate duties to the employees and other persons using the knowledge and skills they have gained. Through this the enterprise will run as required without any complications (Campbell Campbell, 2007). The fifth is that they should always avoid the conflicts of interest so as to ensure the motivation of the individuals or company is not corrupted. The concerned persons should come to a conclusion on a common interest that they should pursue and that which needs priority. The management of the institution will be easier to undertake when there is cooperation among the directors. The sixth is that they should never accept any benefits from the third party individuals. The idea may bring laxity in the company or collapse as they will use the weakness of the organization to their advantage. The information of the enterprise should remain confidential at all times for security of the company and its future. The third parties are not always trustworthy in the businesses and may bring in various investments or decisions that are not productive but to ruin the organization. The directors have the liability to execute their duties as they are required and without violating them (Mathias, 20 00). What are the consequences, if any of a breach of the Corporations Act? The breach of any law relating to the Corporations Act that regards the duties of a director has various consequences. First of all, an individual who is guilty of any criminal offence is penalized a maximum of two hundred thousand dollars or be incarcerated for up to five years. Moreover, the court of law can impose both of them on a person depending on the offences that one has committed. Secondly, a person is banned from managing a company the entire or a period of several years. It serves as a punishment for one to be disciplined and also sets an example to other people who have such motives. The persons are prohibited to administer an institution for a period of ten years or above depending on their mistakes. It is upon the individuals to ensure that they protect their positions by carrying out their duties and responsibilities as stipulated. Thirdly, contravening a civil penalty provision a penalty of over two hundred thousand dollars may be imposed on an individual. Lastly, on e may be personally responsible to compensate the organization or other persons that have suffered any loss or damage. The directors should at all-time not contravene the Corporations Act for the smooth running of their life and that of an organization (Rosenthal, 2012). Rights as a Shareholder A shareholder is a team, person or an organization that owns various shares in a company; it can be one or more. The privileges and rights are governed by the law that is stipulated in the country where the company is headquartered. The persons that own the common shares of a particular company stock are termed as the real owners of the corporation. Rick had purchased two shares that worth fifty thousand dollars from R Us Pty Ltd. He became a non-executive director but is not contented with the state of affairs of the company. The shoes company revenue has been increased by three hundred percent and he has not received any dividends. Rachel and Tanya have declined to pay the dividends as required. Moreover, they have voted themselves to get a huge pay rise and several bonuses and arranged to lease the most expensive cars for their personal use. However, after the first meeting, he his removed from the board due to his questioning of the dividends and objecting the lease of cars for e xclusive use (Miller Jentz, 2010). Advise Rick as to his rights as a shareholder/member. In addition to that, Rick has a number of rights as a shareholder of the R Us Pty Ltd. First of all, he has the right to share in profitability as long as he owns the shares. The dividing of the profits that have been earned by the company takes place depending on the shares that an individual has over a period of time. The shareholders have the rights to the revenue distributions that is done through dividend payments. The board of directors has the responsibility to declare the dividends in a particular period. Afterwards the shareholders should be able to receive them depending on the company rules. Moreover, they are not guaranteed and if the organization is liquidated, the common shareholders have the right to the assets and income of the institution. It is after the bondholders and the shareholders that have been preferred have been paid. Secondly, Rick has the right to control the management as he can vote during the elections of the board of directors. Among the small compani es, the chairperson of the board is the individual who has the largest shares. The shareholders have the right to influence who heads the management posts through the elections (Varrenti et al, 2011). Thirdly, Rick has the right to buy the new shares after they are issued to the public by the company. They also have the pre-emptive rights that are valuable and are provided at certain price through subscription per-share basis. The current shareholders in the organization are given the privilege to buy a certain number of shares before the new ones buy them. Lastly, he has the right to vote in the organizations annual meetings. The common shareholders voting rights are equal to one vote per the share that one owns and it greatly influences the individuals with large shares. The persons who feel their rights have been violated they got the right to sue the company. The court of law has the powers to enforce the shareholders rights when the companies have violated them. The management of the company should ensure that they do not violate the rights of the shareholders at all costs or face the law. Moreover, every shareholder should be given the chance to vote in the general meetings and there should be no favor. However, when an organization is sued in the court of law it can face heavy fines due to its misconduct. It can also face other penalties depending on how it has been carrying out its activities (Varrenti et al, 2011). Corporations Act 2001 It has various sections that outline the laws that the people need to follow in the organizations. Under section 180(1) the directors of any company have the duty to act with care and diligence in respect to the size of the enterprise. However, in section 180(2) some defenses are outlined in regard to the decision made under various circumstances even though it does not fit the corporation. It is supposed to be adhered to by the directors of the companies without fail. The organizations rely on the decisions of the top managers for its success and running the day to day activities. The bad decisions that a manager makes lead to the collapse of the company or incurring huge losses that take time to be recovered (Cseti, 2010). The strategies that are vital should be laid down by the management to ensure that the company meets its set goals and objectives in the future. All the processes that help the organization increase its productivity should be given the priority and be adhered to for it to earn more income and hence more profits. The individuals differ in their management way and every person has his or her own way of managing an enterprise. However, they have the objective of increasing the outputs and ensuring that the productivity of an organization improves rapidly. They should be careful in the strategies they implement to ensure they do not bring losses to the company (Tomasic et al, 2002). What are the criteria that a director needs to satisfy under section 180(2) in order to establish this defense? However, so as to establish the defense a director must satisfy the following criteria under section 180(2). First of all, they should make a judgment in good faith and for the best purpose. It ensures that they have exercised their powers in the correct manner even though the judgment has other negative consequences. They should select the proper purpose that is intended for a particular judgment to take place. Secondly, one should not have any material or personal interest regarding the judgment made. The director should focus on the interest of the company so as to make it progress and attain its goals. Using the criteria to make any judgment ensures that a director defends himself in case any issue arises. Thirdly, they should make themselves aware about the subject matter of the rule to the extent which they are sure of it to be appropriate. They should make sound judgments that they believe are the best for the company and its ultimate progress. The criterion helps in the defen se of the directors in case any unexpected outcomes prevail. The appropriate decisions are vital in any enterprise and help it achieve the stipulated goals and objectives. Lastly, they should logically believe that the decision they make is in the ultimate interest of the organization. It should be reasonable for it to be implemented and become successful to the company. It is upon the director to ensure that he or she believes that the decisions they make are rational and good for the company (Cassidy, 2006). Do you think that section 180(2) does a good job in protecting directors in making business decisions? Does it need to protect directors better? The section 180(2) does a good job in protecting the directors in making the business decisions. It gives the directors the motivation to make decisions as they are aware they are protected in case anything happens after the decision is implemented. Several decisions go wrong after they are made and had been well outlined by the directors. The logic in the decisions helps defend the director from any consequence after the decision fails. The companies highly depend on them and if anything happens they should be held liable. The directors should be well protected and their activities monitored to ensure they act accordingly. Conclusion In conclusion, the Corporations Act plays a greater role in outlining the laws that should be followed by various organizations and individuals. It outlines the duties and responsibilities of the directors and also their defenses. On the other hand, the shareholders have their rights in a company and the board of directors should not oppress them. The violation of their rights is against the law and one can face heavy fines if found guilty of the offence. However, there are types of business structures and it is upon an individual to choose the best that suits the business one is operating. Every structure comprises of its own characteristics and requirements that must be met for it to be successful. References Australia., CCH Australia Limited. (2011).Australian corporations securities legislation 2011. North Ryde, N.S.W: CCH Australia. Anderson, H. (2008).Directors' personal liability for corporate fault: A comparative analysis. Alphen aan den Rijn: Kluwer Law International. Cassidy, J. (2006).Concise corporations law. Annandale, N.S.W: Federation Press. Cseti, D. (2010).Understanding personal property securities law. Sydney: CCH Australia. Clough, J., Mulher, C. (2002).The prosecution of corporations and their officers. Melbourne:Oxford University Press. Campbell, D., Campbell, C. T. (2007).International liability of corporate directors. Salzburg,Austria: Yorkhill Law Pub. Epstein, D. G., Freer, R. D., Roberts, M. J., Shepherd, G. B. (2015).Business structures. St. Paul, Minn: West Group. Gitman, L. J., McDaniel, C. D. (2008).The future of business: The essentials. Mason, OH:Thomson South-Western. nternational law: Keyed to courses using Damrosch, Henkin, Murphy, and Smit's "Internationalaw". (2010). New York, NY: Aspen James, J. (2003).Company law. London: Cavendish Pub